Literary criticism in Urdu might have been an imaginary landscape. Not too long ago, it was described by the eminent critic Kalimuddin Ahmed as almost non-existent, as imaginary as the point in classical Euclidean geometry or the waistline of the beloved in ghazals. Far from being accepted as universal truths, such pronouncements have subsequently been questioned. The pendulum has swung to the other extreme. It would be safe to say that the field of literary criticism has moved away from being a desolate wilderness to a rather densely populated area and is beset with radical changes; questioning the old and bringing in newer elements.

Among the most interesting developments in recent years is the challenging of assumptions traced back to their origins in colonial times, and the critical re-examination of their legacy from that period onwards. Such rethinking is the focus of attention in the work of Nasir Abbas Nayyar, Urdu Adab ki Tashkeel-i-Jadeed, who has almost single-handedly initiated a postcolonial understanding of Urdu literary criticism, and as a result has opened a new field of study for literary appreciation.

The entire body of what we label as ‘modern’ Urdu literature — and current literary criticisms on it — is the work of a pioneering generation who, in the age of the Mughal twilight, witnessed the old order die “not with a bang but a whimper,” in the words of T.S. Eliot. With a passion for linguistics, Muhammad Hussain Azad sought to define and establish the classical canon, to the extent of excluding women and non-Muslims, in the influential Aab-i-Hayat. Steeped in the classical tradition of poetry, Altaf Hussain Hali came up with the model of a modern nazm and his Muqadma developed the theoretical base for literary appreciation. Not a remarkable poet himself, Nazir Ahmad Dehlvi became the forerunner of the novel. Shibli Nomani was more interested in biography and ilm-i-kalam but proved to be no less influential as a literary critic. And the larger-than-life figure of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan can by no stretch of the imagination be termed as a literary critic in the proper sense of the word. His wide-ranging socio-political and educational concerns nonetheless exerted a strong influence on that period.

While Urdu literary criticism is thriving, Nasir Abbas Nayyar’s pioneering contributions elevate its colonial, ideological strictures

Some of the assumptions adopted by these critics have been proven to be based on an incomplete and faulty understanding of Western norms, as well as a readiness to dismiss some classical traditions. Despite recognising some shortcomings in their understanding, many latter-day critics faithfully continued down the path charted by their predecessors — particularly the Progressive Writers, who saw them as early harbingers of change. On the other hand, when latter-day critics (including the highly perceptive Saleem Ahmed) expressed disagreement, their criticism was often sarcastic and irreverent in tone (particularly of Hali, who seemed more vulnerable). Nevertheless, Saleem Ahmed comes across as a more serious critic of Hali than the erstwhile Maulana’s many uncritical admirers. Steering clear of both uncritical admiration and hostility, Nasir Abbas Nayyar offers a more balanced reading of the old masters; while he questions many of their opinions and judgements, his tone is never belligerent or dismissive.

In one way, the present volume can be seen as an extension of the critic’s previous work through which he broke new ground in Urdu literary criticism. His list of prior publications is impressive and justifies his credentials to tackle a subject as diverse and complex as in this book. Nayyar’s impressive literary trajectory includes a pioneering book-length study of Majeed Amjad, the fascinating but unjustly neglected poet of the mid-20th century; and a collection of essays examining globalisation in a literary context, which may actually be the best publication on this highly relevant subject to appear in the annals of Urdu studies.

He has also spent considerable time and effort in the analysis of various syllabi developed over the past century — revealing the blatant ideological underpinnings in most of them — designed to fashion citizens of a certain mindset rather than to inculcate a sense of appreciation of literature; a project continued by the state long after the end of colonial rule. In the world of Urdu syllabi what the Union Jack signifies continues to fly high. Nayyar is probably the only scholar who has critically examined, in detail, how societal rot set in through indoctrinating school syllabi.

In one way, the present volume can be seen as an extension of the critic’s previous work through which he broke new ground in Urdu literary criticism. His list of prior publications is impressive and justifies his credentials to tackle a subject as diverse and complex as in this book.

In 2013, the author published yet another seminal work which explored Urdu language and its literature from a postcolonial context. This book picks up from where he concluded his last publication. It ought to be seen not so much as a sequel but as a development of the argument he had laid the groundwork for earlier, as is made explicit in the book’s introduction where the author links this new work with his previous, and explains his methodology of looking at alternative narratives. The opening chapter contemplates the question of whether Muslim conquerors can be considered to have ‘colonised’ India before the British, and focuses on how this issue can be seen from a postcolonial perspective.

Remarkable for its insight and breadth of vision, this must surely be one of the very few serious attempts in recent years to examine literature within this context. The author has not shied away from going against established and long-cherished notions, especially when he touches upon the issue of how such engineered readings of history pave the way for a narrow view of the present. There is another fascinating chapter on the encounter between the “imagination-loving” East and the “rationalist” West — similar to the comparative study undertaken by the great Hindi fiction writer Nirmal Verma, between India and Europe. It leaves one hankering for more extensive discussion than is mandated here.

The best parts of the book are the detailed, analytical studies of Hali, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Akbar Allahabadi, Nazir Ahmad Dehlvi and Shibli — offering new insight and a highly informed contemporary critique of their work. Hali’s ‘qaumi shairi’ seems different when seen from a postcolonial perspective. Shibli is characterised by ‘ambivalence’, which the author calls “do-jazbiat” and cites Homi K. Bhabha who saw this is an inevitable condition of colonial discourse. This brilliantly explains how Sir Syed Ahmad Khan preferred a reformulation rather than rehabilitation of the past while Shibli would stop short at nothing but rehabilitation of the past.

While I cannot fully agree with such a stark division, which makes Akbar Allahabadi stand next to and rub shoulders with Shibli’s hero-worshipping of the past, nevertheless the argument forces one to question many assumptions prevalent to this day.

Another important figure from the period, Nazir Ahmad Dehlvi, is the subject of thorough analysis through focus on his rich and complex novel, Tauba Tun Nasooh. This must surely be one of the most perceptive analyses of this writer in recent years. Jumping through time in an otherwise linear, sequential structure, Nayyar embarks upon a detailed study of contemporary fiction from his particular perspective. Taking up from brief but illuminating discussions of Manto and Qurratulain Hyder, he offers a reading of Intizar Hussain as a “counter-narrative” to the prevalent discourse. Despite offering an entirely new and challenging interpretation, this part of the book left me unsatisfied and wishing for deeper exploration. This work has the potential to lead on to further work that breaks free of the excess colonial baggage which we have been carrying for far too long.

The reviewer is a writer and translator. He teaches liberal arts and Urdu and is the editor of the literary journal Duniyazaad.

Urdu Adab ki Tashkeel-i-Jadeed
(LITERARY CRITICISM)
By Nasir Abbas Nayyar
Oxford University Press, Karachi
ISBN: 978-0199402625
384pp.