“The present water supply of Karachi, like that of many Eastern Cities, is insufficient. It has a capacity of only 11 to 15 million gallons per day, whereas the water demand for the city in the first stage of development is estimated to be 70 million gallons per day, increasing to 270 million gallons per day in the future.”— The Merz Rendel Vatten (MRV) Plan, 1951

“The present water resource technology is costly, wasteful of water, makes Karachi vulnerable to system failure, and does not support agriculture development or environmental enhancement in the region. Water demand is increasing rapidly.”— The Karachi Development Plan 1974-1985

In the heart of Karachi, a city known for its vibrant energy and bustling markets, a silent struggle unfolds each night. Jameel, a resident of Korangi, one of the city’s densely populated areas, rises in the middle of the night from his slumber, not to greet the dawn, but to wrestle with the city’s most pressing crisis: water scarcity.

In the early hours of the day, Jameel joins a silent army of Karachiites armed with blue-coloured water cans and recycled plastic buckets. They gather around the water mains, their faces etched with a mix of desperation and resignation. A diesel generator, a lifeline in this water-starved city, roars to life, powering the pumps that draw precious water from the mains.

Water ‘tankers’ barrelling down the road are a common sight even in Karachi’s ‘posh’ areas, illustrating the greatest issue confronting this city’s residents — water scarcity. But why have numerous ‘development plans’ since 1951 failed to address this worsening issue, and will projects such as the K-IV, if it ever comes to fruition, actually be the permanent solution to the megapolis’ unending water supply crisis?

Zahid, a resident of Paharganj in North Nazimabad, has witnessed a chilling transformation in his access to water. Gone are the days of reliable, consistent supply. Now, water has become a scarce commodity, rationed by an unseen hand. For days, sometimes weeks, his taps remain stubbornly dry. The once robust water pressure that easily filled his overhead tank has dwindled to a mere trickle, barely reaching the underground reservoir. This isn’t just a personal inconvenience — it’s a symptom of a deeper malaise gripping the neighbourhood.

Those who can afford them have resorted to desperate measures, installing diesel-powered suction pumps to wrest water from the dwindling supply lines. These powerful pumps, however, create a vicious cycle, further depleting the already meagre flow for those who cannot afford such expensive and polluting solutions.

Zahid, like many of his neighbours, is trapped in a precarious situation. He faces the daily indignity of water scarcity, the constant anxiety of not knowing when his taps will run again, and the frustration of watching his neighbours circumvent the system while he is left to fend for himself. This is not just a water crisis, it’s a crisis of equity — a stark reminder of the widening gap between the haves and ‘have-a-little’ in a city already grappling with numerous challenges.

The recent water crisis in Karachi, triggered by the 84-inch water line damage on the Redline Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) route, has raised serious concerns about the city’s water governance. Karachi faces a severe water crisis due to a confluence of factors. Rapid population growth has outstripped water supply, while ageing infrastructure, line losses and inadequate water sources further exacerbate the situation.

With inadequate implementation, past urban planning efforts have also fallen short, hindering the realisation of solutions. The K-IV water supply project — planned back in 2002/2003 and meant to supply 650 million gallons of drinkable water per day to the city — is plagued by delays and cost overruns, hindering its progress. The city’s future hangs in the balance, teetering on the brink of a humanitarian crisis, unless bold and decisive action is taken to address this critical issue.

The K-IV water supply project — planned back in 2002/2003 and meant to supply 650 million gallons of drinkable water per day to the city — is plagued by delays and cost overruns, hindering its progress. The city’s future hangs in the balance, teetering on the brink of a humanitarian crisis, unless bold and decisive action is taken to address this critical issue.

KARACHI’S THIRSTY PAST

The historical evolution of Karachi’s water supply system demonstrates a consistent struggle to meet the city’s growing demand, despite efforts to diversify sources and improve infrastructure.

Before the establishment of the Karachi Municipality in 1852, residents of the city relied on wells and reservoirs for their drinking water. Prominent among these water bodies were Raam Talao, Ratan Talao, Frere Talao, Nanakwara Talao and Rambagh Talao, which were scattered throughout the old city. The term ‘talao’ is often used in the context of smaller water bodies or ponds, particularly in certain regional dialects, and might refer to a more specific or less sizeable body of water compared to a talaab. Additionally, rainwater was collected in a few reservoirs.

The city’s growing population and expanding urban footprint necessitated a more reliable and efficient water supply system. In 1885, the municipality began distributing water through pipes, marking a significant improvement in water delivery. However, the supply remained insufficient and often brackish.

The Dumlottee Wells water supply scheme was launched in 1885 under the supervision of municipal engineer James Strachen. Initially, two wells were dug to supply water to the city. By 1947, the number of wells had increased to 14, but this still proved insufficient to meet the rising demand.

As Karachi continued to expand, the city sought additional water sources. In the 1930s and 1940s, water from the Haleji conduit was introduced as a supplementary source. This diversification of water sources helped alleviate the water shortage to some extent, but the city’s growing population and increasing urbanisation soon outpaced the available supply.

In the post-Independence era, Karachi’s journey to secure a reliable water supply dates back to the early 1950s. Under the leadership of Khawaja Nazimuddin, the Greater Karachi Bulk Water Supply Scheme was initiated in 1953. This ambitious project aimed to provide the city with an additional 280 million gallons of water per day (MGD) through four distinct phases.

The primary source of water for this scheme was Keenjhar Lake, a vital reservoir located in Thatta district. Over the years, the project was implemented in phases, with each phase contributing 70 MGD to the city’s water supply. By 1987, all four phases were completed, significantly enhancing Karachi’s water infrastructure.

In subsequent years, the city’s water supply was further augmented. In 1998, the K-II project added another 100 MGD to the city’s daily water supply. This was followed by the K-III project in 2006, which contributed an additional 100 MGD.

THE WATER SUPPLY PREDICAMENT

Karachi’s water supply relies on multiple sources, three surface water sources and one underground source, with each facing its own set of challenges.

The Haleji Lake, established in 1930, contributes a relatively small amount of water to Karachi, supplying approximately 30 MGD. The Keenjhar Lake, a more recent addition to the city’s water supply system, was developed post-Independence and currently supplies a significant 587 MGD. The Hub Dam, conceived in the 1960s, became operational in 1981. Despite being designed for a capacity of 100 MGD, it currently operates at 49 MGD. This shortfall has contributed to the city’s water woes.

The fourth source of water for Karachi are the Dumlottee wells, which are underground sources. Unfortunately, out of the 14 wells, only three remain functional, further limiting the city’s water supply.

To address the water crisis, Karachi has been implementing various initiatives, such as the K-IV water supply project and some water conservation measures. However, the city’s water supply infrastructure remains fragile, and the demand for water continues to outpace supply.

The evolution of Karachi’s water supply institutions reflects a shifting approach, moving from a state-centric model of provision towards a more market-oriented and decentralised approach.

In 1953, the Karachi Joint Water Board was established to expand the water supply system by drawing water from the Indus River. This marked the initial step towards a centralised water supply system for the city. Then, in 1953, the Karachi Water and Sewerage Board (KW&SB) was established as a unified institution, to take charge of both water supply and sewerage services in the city.

In 1981, the Karachi Water and Management Board (KW&MB) was formed to oversee the distribution of water and implement cost recovery measures. In the efforts for decentralisation in 1996, KW&SB was separated from the Karachi Municipal Corporation (KMC) through an act, granting it greater autonomy and operational flexibility.

The KW&MB was given both distribution and cost recovery powers, but the KMC was still responsible for its revenue and sewerage maintenance. Hence, the KW&MB was upgraded to the KW&SB in 1983. It was placed under the Government of Sindh, but its board of directors had the mayor of Karachi. In 1996, KW&SB was separated from KMC and was brought back under mayoral supervision, until it was separated again under the new Sindh Local Government Act, 2013. Lastly, in 2023, The Karachi Water and Sewerage Corporation (KW&SC) was established, marking a further step towards corporatisation and improved service delivery.

The water distribution system is ageing and inefficient, plagued by issues such as leaks, water theft and unequal distribution, hindering the effective delivery of water to the city.

The KW&SC operates a vast and complex water supply system. It relies on a network of over 150 pumping stations to transport water over 10,000 kilometres of pipelines. The system is designed to supply over 900 million gallons of water daily to a population of over 1.4 million consumers. Additionally, the KW&SC manages over 400,000 valves to regulate water flow. A significant part of the problem is the city’s old and poorly maintained water infrastructure, which has led to leaks and inefficiencies.

Water theft is a major issue as organised groups illegally tap into water supply lines, reducing the availability of water for law-abiding consumers. Moreover, devices that increase water pressure have disrupted the distribution system, causing unequal access to water. The lack of transparency in retail water distribution further allows exploitation by local officials and individuals, leading to unfair distribution.

MANAGING KARACHI’S DEMAND

Besides the other factors of spillage and theft, Karachi’s rapidly increasing population is a primary driver of the city’s severe water crisis, creating a widening gap between water demand and supply. According to estimates, the city’s per capita water demand is currently at 54 gallons per day (GPCD). With an approximate population of 24 million, the cumulative demand for water is estimated to be a staggering 1,080 MGD.

However, the current water supply falls far short of meeting this demand. Relevant staff at the KW&SC estimate a shortfall of 430 MGD. This means that Karachi is facing a daily deficit of over 400 million gallons of water. Experts are of the opinion that, in order to bridge this gap, the city will need to increase its water supply by 100 MGD every five years. This highlights the urgent need for sustainable and long-term solutions to address Karachi’s water crisis.

The reasons for the exponential rise in demand are many but the most oft-cited is the rapid increase in population of the port city. Others include the breakdown of the joint-family system and the resulting increase in housing units, the unplanned sprawl of the metropolis, and changes in the lifestyle of the populace. Due to a shortage of space, only Karachi’s increase in population is discussed here.

The pace of growth has been particularly rapid in recent decades. For instance, between 1951 and 1981 (in a span of 30 years), the city’s population grew by 4.3 million. However, in the subsequent 17 years (1981-1998), the population surged by a further 4.4 million more residents.

DESPERATE MEASURES

Faced with a crippling water shortage, Karachiites have resorted to a desperate array of measures to quench their thirst. These range from digging wells and boreholes to tap into dwindling groundwater reserves, to purchasing water from private vendors, and even relying on bottled water from commercial companies. Citizens are also increasingly turning to widely scattered filtration plants and acquiring potable water from water tankers.

This patchwork of solutions reflects the city’s struggle to cope with a water crisis that has reached alarming proportions. It is difficult to estimate the number of water wells and borings in the city, as the KW&SC is still struggling to regulate the use of sub-soil water.

The Census 2023 data offers a fascinating glimpse into the varied sources of water supply across different districts of Karachi. The city’s reliance on multiple sources, including tap water, motor pumps, dug wells, filtration plants, boiled water, and others, highlights the complex nature of its water infrastructure and the challenges faced by its residents.

As mentioned in the Census of 2023, a significant majority of Karachi’s population, 51.73 percent, relies on tap water as their primary source. However, it is important to note that the reliance on tap water has declined over the years — around 80 percent of Karachi’s residents relied on piped water according to the census of 1998.

A substantial reliance on motor pumps, 18.48 percent, suggests potential groundwater depletion and water quality issues, especially in areas with limited access to piped water. The increasing use of filtration plants (6.51 percent) and boiled water (9.45 percent), points to concerns about the quality of water from other sources, particularly in terms of contamination and impurities.

In the Census 2023 data, the “Others” category encompasses a variety of sources, including rainwater harvesting, tanker water and other unconventional methods, reflecting the diverse strategies employed by residents to secure water. The city’s reliance on multiple sources, including tap water, motor pumps, dug wells, filtration plants, bottled water, and others, highlights the challenges in ensuring a reliable and clean water supply.

The seven districts of Karachi provide stark insight into the varied sources of water supply. Central Karachi predominantly relies on tap water for 60.72 percent of its usage, indicating a relatively better access to municipal water supply. However in the Census of 1988, the reliance of District Central on piped water was around 90 percent.

The South and Korangi districts show a significant reliance on motor pumps (26.59 and 26.73 percent respectively), raising concerns about groundwater depletion and potential water quality issues. Korangi district’s notable reliance on bottled water (12.91 percent) suggests concerns about the quality of tap and groundwater sources. Kemari District, with its high dependence on ‘Other’ sources (45.5 percent), reflects the challenges in accessing reliable water supply in this area.

In the old city area, maashkis [water bearers] can still be seen providing water to apartment complexes. Most of these sources use KW&SC water lines. Due to densification and non-availability of water from the water provision system, communities have installed suction pumps on the lines and have converted their outlets into stand posts, with proper management of the cues. The authorities turn a blind eye to this ‘spillage’, as it relieves the burden of water provision from their shoulders.

Historically, the provision of water through water bowsers, commonly known as ‘tankers’, was utilised as an emergency service. Later, it became a viable alternative for the water-starved communities. Water is also supplied by water tankers to those parts of Karachi where water supply systems do not exist or function. The water tankers get water from KW&SC designated hydrants or from ‘illegal’ hydrants that use tube wells to tap shallow water aquifers.

The number of illegal hydrants is increasing and many apartment complexes have developed their own tube wells. As per media reports, the number of tankers operating in the city range from 8,000 to 10,000, with approximately 40,000 to 50,000 deliveries per day and a revenue generation of a staggering Rs160 to Rs200 million per day (conservative estimates), making it a complete industry.

These water bowsers come in all shapes, sizes and capacities. Besides traditional medium and long body truck bowsers, donkey carts, Shehzore trucks and Suzuki carriers with generator-driven motors are commonly used for water transportation in narrow streets and alleyways.

K-IV: ANOTHER DAY, ANOTHER DELAY

In 2002/2003, a lifeline for Karachi was envisioned: the K-IV water supply scheme. This ambitious project aimed to quench the city’s insatiable thirst by transporting water from the distant Keenjhar Lake in Thatta District to the bustling metropolis, through a 121 km long conduit. The much-touted K-IV water supply project, a crucial initiative to address Karachi’s water crisis, has been plagued by significant delays and cost overruns, hindering its progress and raising concerns about its effectiveness.

Initially estimated to cost Rs25.5 billion and be completed by mid-2019, the project’s revised cost now exceeds Rs247 billion, with the projected completion date now pushed back to 2027.

A host of factors have contributed to these setbacks, including financial constraints, bureaucratic hurdles and technical complexities, and ‘right-of-way’ issues. The project’s route has been a contentious issue, leading to legal battles and delays in land acquisition. The 121 km long K-IV emerges from a higher point in the Keenjhar Lake and heads away from the sea up to just touch DHA City, cross the Super Highway (or M9) and crawl through what is now Bahria Town towards Hub and stops at Deh Allah Piyaee. Given the various localities it crosses, it is easy to see why there have been delays in land acquisition.

Moreover, the slow implementation of the K-IV augmentation plan (which consists of two major components: civil work and the establishment of a grid station, along with the installation of a transmission line) and inadequate coordination with other stakeholders (such as agriculturists, farmers, civil society leaders and Thatta residents), has further hindered progress.

While the K-IV project is touted as a silver bullet, it is crucial to address the root causes of Karachi’s water crisis. Karachi faces a severe water crisis due to insufficient supply, ageing infrastructure and rapid population growth and, until these issues are addressed, the water crisis will continue to keep coming back, K-IV or no K-IV. Residents such as Jameel and Zahid will continue to experience daily struggles for access to water, often resorting to desperate measures in order to ensure that their families have access to water for their daily tasks.

Historical attempts to address Karachi’s water crisis, such as the K-IV water supply project, have faced long delays and challenges. Such delays and challenges themselves highlight the need for rethinking the very paradigm under which the government plans to ensure equitable access to the most vital of the city’s resources.

Mansoor Raza is a Karachi-based academic and a board member of the Urban Resource Centre. He can be reached at mansooraza@gmail.com

Nudrat Fatima Junaid is a development practitioner and a Karachi based researcher

Published in Dawn, EOS, January 5th, 2025