The grandeur of Mughal rule had waned by the 18th century. Aurangzeb’s successors, from Bahadur Shah I to Muhammad Shah, had proven weak and vulnerable; their reigns characterised by poor governance, internal disputes, a lethargic and unorganised army, and an inability to effectively maintain law and order. The fragmentation of the Mughal empire provided an opportunity for the British to fill the power vacuum, which they did by establishing their hold over India following the Battle of Plassey on June 23, 1757.

The Raj was finally able to entrench its dominance in the aftermath of the massive bloodshed during the ill-fated War of Independence of 1857, which had been infused with a still inchoate sense of Indian nationalism. After the war was over, the British blamed the Muslims for the upheaval and set about unleashing their fury on the community. It was Sir Syed Ahmed Khan who, through his movement for a Muslim renaissance, sought to alter British perceptions about Muslims while urging his co-religionists to seek modern scientific education. When the Indian National Congress (INC) was formed in 1885 to provide a united forum for the people of British India, Sir Syed advised Muslims to distance themselves from the Congress’s politics.

The Muslims would later form their own political party, the All-India Muslim League, which was the first practical step towards securing themselves a separate political identity, as envisioned in Sir Syed’s Two Nation Theory. Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah stepped up to lead this endeavour after joining the Muslim League in 1913 at the invitation of Wazir Hassan. Jinnah’s transformational leadership style and the Muslim citizenry’s faith in his persistent struggle, organised and disciplined way of leadership, greatly contributed to keeping the movement intact. The following are some of the most iconic characteristics of Jinnah’s charismatic leadership, which captured the imagination of Muslims across British India.

Individuality

Jinnah’s single-track mind, selflessness and extroversion enabled him to make firm decisions, take an inflexible stand on principles, and lead from the front. He had a dominant personality and a talent for arguing convincingly while debating political issues. His conscientiousness and persistence earned him the trust of his followers, who were greatly influenced by his fairness, integrity, intellectual brilliance and epistemic curiosity, as well as emotional stability in dealing with difficult situations. One of the unique attributes of Jinnah’s leadership was his sound judgment, which enabled him to differentiate between wrong and right and do the right thing by sensing what was realistic and likely to work.

Jinnah’s transformational leadership style and the Muslim citizenry’s faith in his persistent struggle, organisation and disciplined way of leadership greatly contributed to keeping the Pakistan Movement intact.

Seeking out the truth and generating new ideas contributed to his agility in navigating political complexities. His sober look, perceptive nature and dynamic persona greatly contributed to the success of his legal and political journey. Jinnah’s self-confidence and pride in what he did was incredible. His early career as a pleader reflected a rare ability to grasp the facts of law quickly. So was the case with his political career, where he grasped the legal, geographical, and historical facts of the case for Pakistan like few others could. His integrity in pleading and leading was never questioned by his opponents throughout his legal and constitutional battles. Stanely Wolpert rightly believed that Jinnah’s life was governed by his love of justice, fairness, and the law.

Moreover, Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah was a great strategic thinker with an acute intellect who was able to forecast how events were likely to unfold. He judged the changing dynamics of politics accurately by weighing up all possible choices and finding a line of argument that would refute the unsound propositions of the British rulers as well as Congress leaders.

Courage is both the moral and practical ability of leaders to step forward through fear. Quaid-i-Azam Muhamad Ali Jinnah had the courage to speak up and accept responsibility for his actions. He took risks, broke barriers, reduced boundaries, believed in a higher purpose, and initiated change. In the view of Hector Bolitho, Jinnah remained what he had always been—logical, obstinate and honest, and never gave up his virtues, which included parsimony, prudence and ambition, despite cynical and violent opposition from political extremists. His political genius, bravery, temperament, overwhelming determination and lasting charm shaped his entire political leadership.

Initiative

Jinnah took several initiatives which shaped the course of South Asian history. In 1910, he was elected to the Imperial Legislative Council, where he started his parliamentary career. He began to demonstrate a commitment to the Muslim cause by introducing a legislative proposal aimed at securing the recognition and protection of waqf properties, which occupied great significance for Muslims. The bill, known as the Waqf Validating Bill, was passed by the British in 1913. It contributed significantly to the protection of Muslim properties used for religious and charitable institutions. Later, he also sought the protection and promotion of these institutions under the 12th point of his 14-point charter of demands.

During his affiliation with Congress, he worked tirelessly to bring Muslims and Hindus together. Through another initiative, the Lucknow Pact of 1916, Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah was able to secure distinct political representation for Muslims. The pact was the first formal agreement between the INC and AIML, and it only became possible because of his active coordination. It was a crucial moment in the sense that Congress, for the first time, acknowledged the Muslim League as the representative of the Indian Muslims and accepted separate electorates, which was important for securing the representation of Muslims in all legislative bodies, protection of their rights, and preservation of their distinct political identity.

Hindu-Muslim unity was inimical to the British policy of divide and rule, and it increased the worries and fears of the Raj during the critical years of World War I. The British had already promised to deliver progressive self-rule to the sub-continent at the end of the war, but, instead of keeping their pledge, diverted the Indians’ attention by imposing the oppressive Rowlatt Act. Under the Act, the rulership took measures including arrests without warrants, detention without bail and house arrests of suspects without warning. The Act also put restrictions on the movement of people, their political gatherings and processions. The sacrifices of Hindu and Muslim soldiers who fought for the British were largely ignored, and this caused great unrest among these communities. Disheartened Indians began to share a common goal: liberating India from colonial rule. However, the strategies of assorted political groups were far from mutual. Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah sagaciously knew that the Act would be disastrous for liberty and freedom, and he resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council. The British rulers’ condescending attitude resulted in a spectacular failure to understand the harsh realities and sentiments of the people, which reached a tragic climax in the Amritsar Massacre in April 1919, marked as one of the blackest events in the history of the British Empire.

Insight

After 1919, the British were forced to devolve some authority. They did so by trying to balance the interests of various political groups and allowing communal electorates. In order to perpetuate imperial interests, the state attempted to reduce anti-British resistance and assuage public opinion through the Montague-Chelmsford reforms, which went a step further than the 1909 reforms in granting the principle of dyarchy and engaged non-official Indians in dealing with some subjects at the provincial level. The reforms also suggested that three out of six advisors to the viceroy be Indians, and there ought to be a bicameral legislature. However, Congress considered these reforms inadequate, unsatisfactory, and disappointing. A political uprising continued for the next eight years. In 1927, the Simon Commission was formed to enquire into the workings of the Government of India Act of 1919. The commission was strongly opposed by both the INC and AIML, and its report was rejected even before it was published in 1930.

Instead, Motilal Nehru of the Congress compiled his own report and demanded dominion status for India with complete self-government. The report opposed the idea of a separate electorate and indicated that Congress was clear that India would be ruled by a Hindu-majority party. Thereafter, the temporary alliance between the INC and the Muslim League, sealed during the Khilafat Movement (1919-24) and the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22), came to an end. Jinnah was thoroughly disappointed by the anti-Muslim attitude of the Congress as evidenced in the Nehru Report of 1928, and considered this a parting of ways with the INC.

Jinnah, who possessed deep insight into Indian politics, became wary of Congress’s intentions and the minds of the Hindu political class and presented a counter-proposal in the form of a charter comprising 14 points. He had an eye on the political horizon and the changing circumstances of British India. The 14-point charter, circulated in 1929, guaranteed the distinct identity of Muslims in India. The points displayed faith in federalism, democracy, and parliamentary institutions, and they sought the participation of the Muslim masses in the political process by ensuring Muslim representation in all legislatures and decision-making bodies. Jinnah, through his carefully designed legal framework, challenged the prevailing power structure, protected economic empowerment, preserved social prestige and cultural heritage, and maintained the legacy of Muslim nationalism. These points cleared the political confusion around the Muslims’ separate status and heralded a significant change. His points were a legal roadmap for defending nationhood and contained a strategy to end the Muslims’ identity crisis. Nevertheless, under the pressure of the Hindu Mahasabha, the Congress did not fully endorse the points and joined the Gandhian Salt March against the British to start a civil disobedience movement.

Inspiration

The Second World War had a profound impact on the political situation in India. The British joined the war without consulting the leaders of major political parties. Nevertheless, in order to garner support from India, the British promised in August of 1940 that they would give India full dominion status after the war was over if all parties agreed to take part in framing a new constitution. The Indian National Congress rebuffed the offer and began to put pressure on the British through the Quit India Movement, which started in August 1942. The party did not publicly support the British war effort, but many Indians still contributed to British strength through supplying personnel, logistics and war materials and by volunteering activities. The Muslim League, under the leadership of Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, adopted a clear policy and demanded a separate state for Muslims. Soon after the beginning of the war, the Muslim League passed the historic Lahore Resolution on March 23, 1940, which proved a major milestone in the history of British India. The resolution was a revolt against the prevailing mistreatment of the marginalised Muslim nation by both the British and the Hindus. It became a turning point in formalising the demand for a separate nation-state.

Jinnah, as a man of probity, became a source of trust and inspiration in this sensitive period. He inspired the Muslim masses by presenting a credible vision, and with his inventiveness, acumen, and unique leadership style. He adopted an innovative and cautious approach. Muslims were impressed with his ideas and joined the Muslim League to embark on a new journey for a separate homeland. Eventually, in March 1946, the British sent a Cabinet Mission to act in association with the viceroy and to consult major parties to secure their consent for framing a future constitution. Although the move brought back the concept of a united India, as introduced by the Cripps Mission in 1942, it indirectly also provided a way forward. Thus, despite his predicament, Jinnah accepted the move because the Cabinet Mission proposals not only mirrored the Two-Nation Theory but also provided legal grounds for the creation of Pakistan. Motivated by a deep sense of history, his political wisdom and his masterly grasp of geographic and political realities, Jinnah inspired his contemporary leaders and followers to unite to the cause.

Improvisation

Jinnah improvised the resources he needed to accomplish his goals. He began by revitalising the All-India Muslim League, as he believed that it would otherwise remain a forum for mere debate and discussion without political power and solidarity and, therefore, unable to make a breakthrough in the political arena. Jinnah decided to convert the forum into an organised and action-oriented party equipped with political power and training in electoral politics so that it could mobilise the Muslim masses under its banner. He established a Central Election Board and worked in coordination with provincial leaders. He achieved tremendous success in reorganising and popularising the Muslim League in provinces where the Congress was in power during 1937-39. K.B. Sayeed has argued that Jinnah’s success in popularising the Muslim league was due to the techniques he used to exhort various regional groups and other factions to overcome their differences. As a result, the Muslim League showed remarkable performance and won all the Muslim seats in the central assembly in the 1945-46 elections, polling 75 per cent of the total Muslim vote cast in the provincial elections.

Involvement

Jinnah’s evolution as a statesman was the result of his active involvement with the people. He kept himself engaged and dedicated his life to secure the Muslims their political, economic and social rights. K.B. Sayeed has quoted Jinnah as saying: “I found that the Musalmans were in the greatest danger. I made up my mind to come back to India, as I could not do any good from London.” This shows his personal involvement with the plight of the ordinary people. He made sacrifices in his personal life and endured many losses mainly due to his inexorable dedication to the cause of the Muslims.

Implementation

The partition of India was a remarkable event in world history. The creation of Pakistan as a new nation-state was justified based on the historical legacy and political importance of the Muslim community, which possessed a unique cultural identity. Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah shaped the nation’s destiny and played a crucial role in setting the key objectives of the Pakistan Movement, devising strategies to achieve these within a short span of time. S.M. Burke has argued that Jinnah’s triumphs had the appearance of a one-man show throughout his struggle.

The newly formed nation faced daunting challenges of immense magnitude. These included the establishment of political and economic institutions, the creation of new legal and administrative structures, the management of the refugee crisis, and the protection of its territory against a hostile neighbour which never accepted the reality of Pakistan. These challenges were handled by the founding father of the country with great courage, resilience, wisdom, political prowess, and art. Had our political leaders absorbed the Quaid’s qualities, there would not have been a concomitant crisis of leadership, causing political malaise and an inability to implement the Quaid’s vision in letter and spirit to this day.

The author is a professor and director of the Pakistan Study Centre at the University of Sindh, Jamshoro.